How We Research
Transparency is our priority. Here's exactly how we create evidence-based cannabis education content—and why you can trust our information.
Our Research Commitment
Citation-first approach: Every therapeutic claim in our content is backed by peer-reviewed research. We don't make claims we can't cite—and you can verify every source yourself via PubMed or DOI links.
What we do: We search PubMed, ClinicalTrials.gov, and authoritative medical databases for relevant studies. Each claim includes a direct link to its source. We clearly label evidence levels (Strong, Moderate, Emerging, Anecdotal) so you know exactly how robust the science is.
What we don't do: We don't make unsubstantiated health claims, cite marketing materials as evidence, or present anecdotes as scientific fact. We don't claim to have medical reviewers we don't have.
Our Research Process
Topic Identification
We identify topics based on patient questions, emerging research, and medical relevance. Topics must have sufficient peer-reviewed literature to support educational content.
Literature Review
We search PubMed, ClinicalTrials.gov, and peer-reviewed journals for relevant studies. We prioritize randomized controlled trials (RCTs), systematic reviews, and meta-analyses.
Evidence Grading
Each claim is assigned an evidence level based on the quality and quantity of supporting research. We're honest when evidence is limited or preliminary.
Citation & Attribution
Every claim links to its source with full bibliographic information, including PubMed IDs and DOIs when available. You can verify any claim yourself.
Medical Review & Regular Updates
Cannabis research evolves rapidly. Our Medical Review Board, led by Dr. Kevin Kargman, DO and Dr. Rajashree Kantha, MD, reviews our content when significant new research emerges. Every page shows its last update date.
Evidence Standards
We categorize evidence by the type and quality of research supporting each claim:
Multiple peer-reviewed clinical trials in humans support this effect. This is our highest confidence level.
Examples: CBD for epilepsy, THC for chemotherapy nausea
Supported by preclinical studies and limited clinical data. Promising but not yet definitively proven in humans.
Examples: CBD for anxiety, myrcene for relaxation
Early research shows promise, but more studies are needed. We note the limitations.
Examples: CBG for IBD, THCV for appetite
Based on user reports and traditional use. Limited or no controlled studies. We're explicit when evidence is anecdotal.
Examples: Specific strain effects, "indica vs sativa" effects
Our Sources
What We Cite
- PubMed-indexed peer-reviewed studies
- FDA documents and approvals
- ClinicalTrials.gov registered trials
- Cochrane systematic reviews
- State health department resources
What We Don't Cite
- Marketing materials from cannabis companies
- Non-peer-reviewed blogs or articles
- Social media claims or influencer content
- Predatory or pay-to-publish journals
- Unverified user testimonials
Our Citation Library
Our educational content currently cites 86 peer-reviewed studies and authoritative sources across the following research areas:
Complete Citation List
Every peer-reviewed study and authoritative source we cite across our educational content. Click any citation to view the original study.
CBD Research (12)
Silvestro S, et al. Molecular Targets of Cannabidiol in Experimental Models of Neurological Disease Molecules. 2020
Comprehensive review of CBD's therapeutic applications and molecular targets.
Thiele EA, et al. Cannabidiol in patients with seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (GWPCARE4): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial Lancet. 2018
Phase III trial leading to FDA approval of Epidiolex.
Devinsky O, et al. Trial of Cannabidiol for Drug-Resistant Seizures in Dravet Syndrome New England Journal of Medicine. 2017
Pivotal Dravet syndrome trial supporting FDA approval.
Devinsky O, et al. Cannabidiol in patients with treatment-resistant epilepsy: an open-label interventional trial Lancet Neurology. 2016
Open-label trial showing 36.5% reduction in seizures.
Shannon S, et al. Cannabidiol in anxiety and sleep: A large case series Permanente Journal. 2019
79.2% of patients reported reduced anxiety within first month.
Bergamaschi MM, et al. Cannabidiol reduces the anxiety induced by simulated public speaking in treatment-naïve social phobia patients Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011
CBD reduced anxiety in simulated public speaking test.
Burstein S. Cannabidiol (CBD) and its analogs: a review of their effects on inflammation Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 2015
Review of CBD's anti-inflammatory mechanisms.
Shannon S, et al. Cannabidiol in Anxiety and Sleep: A Large Case Series Permanente Journal. 2019
66.7% of patients reported improved sleep in this anxiety and sleep study.
Urits I, et al. Use of cannabidiol (CBD) for the treatment of chronic pain Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology. 2020
Comprehensive review of CBD for chronic pain management.
Casey SL, et al. Cannabis constituent synergy in a mouse neuropathic pain model Pain. 2017
Study of cannabinoid synergy for neuropathic pain.
De Filippis D, et al. Cannabidiol reduces intestinal inflammation through the control of neuroimmune axis PLOS ONE. 2011
Shows CBD reduces gut inflammation in IBD models.
FDA. FDA Approves First Drug Comprised of an Active Ingredient Derived from Marijuana FDA News Release. 2018
FDA approval of Epidiolex (CBD) for Dravet and Lennox-Gastaut syndromes.
THC Research (11)
Gaoni Y, Mechoulam R. Isolation, structure, and partial synthesis of an active constituent of hashish Journal of the American Chemical Society. 1964. doi:10.1021/ja01062a046
Landmark paper first identifying and synthesizing THC.
Whiting PF, et al. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis JAMA. 2015
Comprehensive review finding moderate evidence for chronic pain.
Aviram J, Samuelly-Leichtag G. Efficacy of Cannabis-Based Medicines for Pain Management: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials Pain Physician. 2017
Systematic review of clinical trials for neuropathic pain.
Lutge EE, et al. The medical use of cannabis for reducing morbidity and mortality in patients with HIV/AIDS Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2013
Systematic review of cannabis for HIV/AIDS symptoms including appetite.
Smith LA, et al. Cannabinoids for nausea and vomiting in adults with cancer receiving chemotherapy Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015
High-quality evidence for CINV efficacy.
Kesner AJ, Lovinger DM. Cannabinoids, Endocannabinoids and Sleep Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 2020
Review of THC effects on sleep architecture.
Novotna A, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, enriched-design study of nabiximols (Sativex), as add-on therapy, in subjects with refractory spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis European Journal of Neurology. 2011
Phase III trial showing efficacy for MS spasticity.
Cuttler C, et al. Short- and Long-Term Effects of Cannabis on Headache and Migraine Journal of Pain. 2020
Found inhaled cannabis reduced self-reported headache severity by nearly 50%.
Jetly R, et al. The efficacy of nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid, in the treatment of PTSD-associated nightmares: A preliminary randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over design study Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2015
Found nabilone (synthetic THC) reduced nightmare frequency in PTSD patients.
Todd SM, Arnold JC. Neural correlates of interactions between cannabidiol and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice: implications for medical cannabis British Journal of Pharmacology. 2016
Study of how CBD and THC interact and affect therapeutic outcomes.
Koppel BS, et al. Systematic review: efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology Neurology. 2014
AAN guideline review on cannabinoids for MS spasticity.
Linalool Research (7)
Linck VM, et al. Effects of inhaled Linalool in anxiety, social interaction and aggressive behavior in mice Phytomedicine. 2010
Linalool reduced anxiety without motor impairment.
Harada H, et al. Linalool Odor-Induced Anxiolytic Effects in Mice Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 2018
Showed linalool acts via olfactory system and GABA-A receptors.
Koulivand PH, et al. Lavender and the nervous system: Clinical evidence Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013
Review of linalool-rich lavender for anxiety and mood.
Linck VM, et al. Inhaled linalool-induced sedation in mice Phytomedicine. 2009
Linalool increased sleep time without affecting REM sleep.
Peana AT, et al. Anti-inflammatory activity of linalool and linalyl acetate constituents of essential oils Phytomedicine. 2002
Linalool reduced edema and inflammation in rat models.
Batista PA, et al. Evidence for the involvement of ionotropic glutamatergic receptors on the antinociceptive effect of (-)-linalool in mice Neuroscience Letters. 2008
Linalool showed analgesic effects via multiple mechanisms.
Elisabetsky E, et al. Anticonvulsant properties of linalool in glutamate-related seizure models Phytomedicine. 1999
Linalool showed anticonvulsant activity in multiple seizure models.
β-Caryophyllene Research (7)
Gertsch J, et al. β-Caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2008
Landmark paper: BCP directly activates CB2 receptors.
Klauke AL, et al. The cannabinoid CB2 receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain European Journal of Pain. 2014
Showed dual mechanism for neuropathic pain relief.
Bahi A, et al. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice Physiology & Behavior. 2014
BCP reduced anxiety via CB2 receptor activation.
Horvath B, et al. β-Caryophyllene ameliorates cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in a cannabinoid 2 receptor-dependent manner Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2012
BCP reduced inflammation markers and oxidative stress.
Tambe Y, et al. Gastric cytoprotection of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory sesquiterpene, beta-caryophyllene Planta Medica. 1996
BCP protected gastric mucosa in ulcer models.
Klauke AL, et al. Antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice Neuropharmacology. 2017
BCP reduced neuropathic pain via CB2 activation.
Bento AF, et al. β-Caryophyllene inhibits dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice through CB2 receptor activation and PPARγ pathway American Journal of Pathology. 2011
BCP reduced colitis severity through CB2 receptors.
Other Terpenes (6)
Ito K, Ito M. The sedative effect of inhaled terpinolene in mice and its structure-activity relationships Journal of Natural Medicines. 2013
Terpinolene prolonged sleep time in mice.
Grassmann J, et al. The monoterpene terpinolene from the oil of Pinus mugo L. in concert with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene effectively prevents oxidation of LDL Phytomedicine. 2005
Terpinolene showed strong antioxidant activity.
Tampieri MP, et al. The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components Mycopathologia. 2005
Essential oils showed activity against Candida species.
Gonçalves ECD, et al. Anti-inflammatory properties of ocimene Natural Product Communications. 2018
Ocimene reduced inflammatory markers in vivo.
Quintans-Júnior LJ, et al. α-Terpineol reduces nociceptive behavior in mice Pharmaceutical Biology. 2011
α-Terpineol showed antinociceptive and CNS depressant activity.
Park SN, et al. Antioxidant activity of α-terpineol Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2009
α-Terpineol demonstrated protective antioxidant effects.
CBG Research (5)
Nachnani R, et al. The Pharmacological Case for Cannabigerol Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 2021
Most comprehensive CBG pharmacology review to date.
Borrelli F, et al. Beneficial effect of cannabigerol on experimental inflammatory bowel disease Biochemical Pharmacology. 2013
CBG reduced colitis markers in mouse IBD models.
Valdeolivas S, et al. Neuroprotective properties of cannabigerol in Huntington's disease Neurotherapeutics. 2015
CBG improved motor deficits in HD mouse models.
Appendino G, et al. Antibacterial cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa Journal of Natural Products. 2008
CBG showed potent activity against MRSA.
Colasanti BK. A comparison of the ocular and central effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabigerol Journal of Ocular Pharmacology. 1990
CBG reduced intraocular pressure in cat models.
Myrcene Research (5)
Surendran S, et al. Myrcene-What Are the Potential Health Benefits of This Flavouring and Aroma Agent? Frontiers in Nutrition. 2021
Comprehensive review: β-myrcene may potentiate the anti-nociceptive properties of cannabinoids.
Johnson MB, et al. The Effects of β-myrcene on Simulated Driving and Divided Attention: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Pilot Study Cannabis. 2023
Found myrcene alone did not significantly impair simulated driving performance.
do Vale TG, et al. Central effects of citral, myrcene and limonene, constituents of essential oil chemotypes from Lippia alba (Mill.) n.e. Brown Phytomedicine. 2002
Demonstrated dose-dependent sedative and motor-relaxant effects of myrcene in mice.
Lorenzetti BB, et al. Myrcene mimics the peripheral analgesic activity of lemongrass tea Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1991
Found peripheral analgesic activity in animal models.
Liktor-Busa E, et al. Analgesic Potential of Terpenes Derived from Cannabis sativa Pharmacological Reviews. 2021
Comprehensive review of cannabis terpene analgesic effects including myrcene.
Entourage Effect & Synergy (4)
Russo EB. Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects British Journal of Pharmacology. 2011
Foundational paper on the entourage effect: how cannabinoids and terpenes work synergistically.
Tagen M, et al. Vaporized D-limonene selectively mitigates the acute anxiogenic effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2024
Johns Hopkins study showing limonene specifically reduces THC-induced anxiety in humans.
Ben-Shabat S, et al. An entourage effect: inactive endogenous fatty acid glycerol esters enhance 2-AG activity European Journal of Pharmacology. 1998
Original paper proposing the entourage effect concept by Mechoulam's team.
Gallily R, et al. Overcoming the bell-shaped dose-response of CBD by using full-spectrum extract Pharmacology & Pharmacy. 2015. doi:10.4236/pp.2015.62010
Hebrew University study: full-spectrum CBD more effective than isolate at lower doses.
THCA Research (4)
Nallathambi R, et al. Anti-Inflammatory Activity in Colon Models Is Derived from Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid That Interacts with Additional Compounds in Cannabis Extracts Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. 2017
THCA activated PPARγ for anti-inflammatory effects in colon models.
Nadal X, et al. Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid is a potent PPARγ agonist with neuroprotective activity British Journal of Pharmacology. 2017
THCA improved motor deficits in HD via PPARγ.
Palomares B, et al. Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid alleviates collagen-induced arthritis: Role of PPARγ and CB1 receptors British Journal of Pharmacology. 2020
THCA alleviates arthritis via PPARγ and CB1 receptors.
Rock EM, et al. Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid reduces nausea-induced conditioned gaping in rats and vomiting in Suncus murinus British Journal of Pharmacology. 2013
THCA reduced nausea more potently than THC in rodent models.
Pinene Research (4)
Perry NS, et al. In-vitro inhibition of human erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase by salvia lavandulaefolia essential oil and constituent terpenes Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2000
Pinene and other terpenes inhibit AChE with memory implications.
Ding Y, et al. Eucalyptol, limonene and pinene enteric capsules attenuate airway inflammation and obstruction in lipopolysaccharide-induced chronic bronchitis rat model via TLR4 signaling inhibition Phytomedicine. 2024
Pinene attenuates airway inflammation and obstruction.
Nam SY, et al. The therapeutic efficacy of α-pinene in an experimental mouse model of allergic rhinitis International Immunopharmacology. 2014
α-Pinene reduced IgE-mediated allergic inflammation.
Salehi B, et al. Therapeutic Potential of α- and β-Pinene: A Miracle Gift of Nature Biomolecules. 2019
Most comprehensive review of pinene pharmacology.
Humulene Research (4)
Rogerio AP, et al. Preventive and therapeutic anti-inflammatory properties of the sesquiterpene alpha-humulene in experimental airways allergic inflammation British Journal of Pharmacology. 2009
α-Humulene reduced airway inflammation via NF-κB inhibition.
Fernandes ES, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of compounds alpha-humulene and (-)-trans-caryophyllene isolated from the essential oil of Cordia verbenacea European Journal of Pharmacology. 2007
α-Humulene showed anti-inflammatory and gastroprotective effects.
Fiorini D, et al. Pharmacological review of α-humulene Phytochemistry Reviews. 2024. doi:10.1007/s11101-024-09876-5
Most recent comprehensive review of humulene pharmacology.
Legault J, Dahl W, et al. Antitumor activity of balsam fir oil: production of reactive oxygen species induced by alpha-humulene as possible mechanism of action Planta Medica. 2003
α-Humulene showed antitumor activity via ROS production.
CBN Research (3)
Saleska JL, et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of the safety and effects of CBN with and without CBD on sleep quality Journal of Cannabis Research. 2024
Randomized controlled trial showing CBN improves sleep quality.
Farrimond JA, et al. Cannabinol and cannabidiol exert opposing effects on rat feeding patterns Psychopharmacology. 2012
CBN stimulated appetite while CBD suppressed it.
Appendino G, et al. Antibacterial cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa: a structure-activity study Journal of Natural Products. 2008
CBN showed antibacterial activity against resistant bacteria.
CBDA Research (3)
Rock EM, et al. Cannabidiolic acid prevents vomiting in Suncus murinus and nausea-induced behaviour in rats by enhancing 5-HT1A receptor activation British Journal of Pharmacology. 2013
CBDA prevents nausea via 5-HT1A receptor activation.
Takeda S, et al. Cannabidiolic acid as a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory component in cannabis Drug Metabolism and Disposition. 2008
CBDA showed selective COX-2 inhibition similar to celecoxib.
Bolognini D, et al. Cannabidiolic acid prevents vomiting in Suncus murinus and nausea-induced behaviour in rats by enhancing 5-HT1A receptor activation British Journal of Pharmacology. 2013
CBDA showed greater potency than CBD for 5-HT1A receptor activation and anti-nausea effects.
Limonene Research (3)
Vieira AJ, et al. Limonene: Aroma of innovation in health and disease Chemico-Biological Interactions. 2018
Comprehensive review of limonene's anxiolytic and antidepressant effects.
Kiecolt-Glaser JK, et al. Olfactory influences on mood and autonomic, endocrine, and immune function Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2008
Lemon scent exposure improved mood and reduced norepinephrine.
Sun J. D-Limonene: safety and clinical applications Alternative Medicine Review. 2007
D-limonene showed gastroprotective effects and clinical safety.
Neurological Research (3)
LaFrance EM, et al. Short and Long-Term Effects of Cannabis on Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Journal of Affective Disorders. 2020
Cannabis use associated with PTSD symptom reduction.
Patti F, et al. Efficacy and safety of cannabinoid oromucosal spray for multiple sclerosis spasticity Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 2016
Sativex maintained efficacy for MS spasticity over long-term use.
Nielsen S, et al. Assessment of Efficacy and Tolerability of Medicinal Cannabinoids in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis JAMA Network Open. 2018
Systematic review and meta-analysis supporting cannabinoids for MS symptoms.
Other Cannabinoids (2)
Wargent ET, et al. The cannabinoid Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) ameliorates insulin sensitivity in two mouse models of obesity Nutrition & Diabetes. 2013
THCV improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in obese mice.
Hill AJ, et al. Cannabidivarin is anticonvulsant in mouse and rat British Journal of Pharmacology. 2012. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02207.x
First study demonstrating CBDV anticonvulsant effects in multiple seizure models.
Pain Research (2)
Rhyne DN, et al. Effects of medical marijuana on migraine headache frequency Pharmacotherapy. 2016
Medical marijuana reduced migraine frequency from 10.4 to 4.6 per month.
Russo EB. Clinical endocannabinoid deficiency (CECD): can this concept explain therapeutic benefits of cannabis in migraine, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome and other treatment-resistant conditions? Neuroendocrinology Letters. 2008
Proposed clinical endocannabinoid deficiency as migraine mechanism.
Inflammation Research (1)
Naftali T, et al. Cannabis induces a clinical response in patients with Crohn's disease: a prospective placebo-controlled study Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2013
Short-term cannabis produced clinical remission in 45% of Crohn's patients.
How to Verify Our Claims
Every citation in our content links directly to its source. You can verify any claim by:
- Clicking the superscript citation number (e.g., [1]) in any article
- Scrolling to the References section at the bottom of the page
- Clicking the PubMed or DOI link to view the original study
- Reading the study abstract or full text to verify our interpretation
Important: Our content is educational, not medical advice. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider for medical decisions. If you're a medical cannabis patient, our telehealth physicians can provide personalized guidance.
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